STRUCTURE OF URANIUM ISOTOPES
By Prof. Lefteris Kaliambos (Natural Philosopher in New Energy) ( October 2014) Historically the discovery of the assumed uncharged neutron (1932) along with the invalid relativity (EXPERIMENTS REJECT RELATIVITY) led to the abandonment of the well-established electromagnetic laws, in favour of various contradicting nuclear theories, which could not lead to the nuclear structure. Under this physics crisis and using the charged UP and DOWN quarks , discovered by Gell-Mann and Zweig, I published my paper “Nuclear structure is governed by the fundamental laws of electromagnetism ” (2003), which led to my discovery of the new structure of protons and neutrons given by proton = + 5d + 4u = 288 quarks = mass of 1836.15 electrons neutron = + 4u + 8d = 288 quarks = mass of 1838.68 electrons The paper was also presented at a nuclear conference held at NCSR "Demokritos" (2002). Here one can see the 9 charged quarks in proton and the 12 ones in neutron able to give the charge distributions in nucleons for revealing the strong electromagnetic force for the nuclear binding in the correct nuclear structure by applying the laws of electromagnetism. You can see my papers of nuclear structure in my FUNDAMENTAL PHYSICS CONCEPTS . Note that according to my discovery of the LAW OF ENERGY AND MASS the mass defect in the nuclear structure is due to the photon mass of the emitting dipolic photon presented at the international conference "Frontiers of fundamental physics" (1993) organised by the natural philosophers M. Barone and F. Selleri , who gave me an award including a disc of the atomic philosopher Democritus. Nevertheless today many physicist continue to apply not the well-established laws but the various fallacious nuclear structure models which lead to complications. Uranium (U) is a naturally occurring radioactive element that has no stable isotopes but two primordial isotopes (uranium-238 and uranium-235) that have long half-life and are found in appreciable quantity in the Earth's crust, along with the decay product uranium-234. The average atomic mass of natural uranium is 238.02891(3) u. Other isotopes such as uranium-232 have been produced in breeder reactors. Naturally occurring uranium is composed of three major isotopes, uranium-238 (99.2739 - 99.2752% natural abundance), uranium-235 (0.7198 - 0.7202%), and uranium-234 (0.0050 - 0.0059%). All three isotopes are radioactive, creating radioisotopes, with the most abundant and stable being uranium-238 with a half-life of 4.4683×109 years (close to the age of the Earth). Uranium-238 is an α emitter, decaying through the 18-member uranium series into lead-206. The decay series of uranium-235 (historically called actino-uranium) has 15 members that ends in lead-207. The constant rates of decay in these series makes comparison of the ratios of parent to daughter elements useful in radiometric dating. Uranium-233 is made from thorium-232 by neutron bombardment. The isotope uranium-235 is important for both nuclear reactors and nuclear weapons because it is the only isotope existing in nature to any appreciable extent that is fissile, that is, can be broken apart by thermal neutrons. The isotope uranium-238 is also important because it absorbs neutrons to produce a radioactive isotope that subsequently decays to the isotope plutonium-239, which also is fissile. Uranium-236 is an isotope of uranium that is neither fissile with thermal neutrons, nor very good fertile material, but is generally considered a nuisance and long-lived radioactive waste. It is found in spent nuclear fuel and in the reprocessed uranium made from spent nuclear fuel. ' ' It is well well-known that the structure of lead-164 (core) of high symmetry consists of 8 horizontal planes and 2 horizontal lines providing 44 blank positions for receiving extra neutrons with two bonds per neutron. (See the fourth figure of lead at the bottom of the page). Similarly the structure of uranium-184 (core) with 92 protons and 92 neutrons (even number) consists of 8 horizontal planes of opposite spins, including four additional deuterons with S = +2 and S = -2 which exist over and under the structure of 8 horizontal planes, forming the up horizontal line (+UHL) and a down horizontal line (-DHL). So all these nucleons of the 8 horizontal planes and the +UHL and the -DHL give S = 0. Moreover several protons of such a structure provide 52 blank positions able to receive 52 extra neutrons with two bonds per neutron for constructing not a stable isotope, but the long-lived U-236 with S =0, because here there is a large number of pp repulsions of long range which always overcomes such pn bonds of short range. ' In general, the structure of U-184 (core) has S =0 and is similar to the structure of Pb-164, because the two additional vertical systems of p91n91 and p92n92 with S = 0 make symmetrical vertical rectangles. So the long-lived U-236 is based on the structure of U-184 in which 52 extra neutrons of opposite spins make two bonds per neutron for constructing the long-lived U-236. On the other hand in the heavier unstable nuclides the more extra neutrons than those of the U-236 (in the absence of blank positions) make single bonds leading to the beta minus decay. ' ' ' STRUCTURE OF U-217, U-218, U-220, U-222, U-224, U-226, U-228, U-230, U-232, U-234, U-236, U-237, U-238, U-240, AND U-242 ' The structures of this group of unstable nuclides including the long-lived U-236 are based on the structure of U-184 (core) with S =0. For example the unstable U-242 with S= 0 has 58 extra neutrons of opposite spins. Here the 52 extra neutrons fill the 52 blank positions, while the 6 extra neutrons which are more than those of the U-236 (in the absence of blank positions) make single bonds leading to beta minus decay. . ' ''' '''STRUCTURE OF U-235 WITH S = -7/2 After a careful analysis I found that the structure of this unstable nuclide is based on another structure of the U-184 (core) having S = -2 . In this case the one deuteron of the up horizontal line (+UHL), like the line of lead, changes the spin from S = +1 to S = -1 giving S = -2, because it goes to the down horizontal line (-DHL) for making horizontal bonds with a deuteron of the down line. Under this condition the U-235 with S = --7/2 of 51 extra neutrons has 24 extra neutrons of positive spins and 27 extra neutrons of negative spins. That is S = -2 + 24(+1/2) + 27(-1/2) = -7/2 Here the 51 extra neutrons fill the 51 blank positions but the pp repulsions of long range always overcome such pn bonds of short range. ' ' STRUCTURE OF U-225, U-227, U-229, U-231, U-233 AND U-239 After a careful analysis I found that the structures of the above unstable nuclides are based on another structure of U-184 (core) having S = +2. In this case the one deuteron of the down horizontal line (-DHL) changes the spin from S = -1 to S = +1 giving S = +2. Particularly it goes to the up horizontal line (+UHL), for making horizontal bonds with one deuteron of the up horizontal line. For example the unstable U-239 with S = +5/2 of 55 extra neutrons has 28 extra neutrons of positive spins and 27 extra neutrons of negative spins. That is S = +2 + 28(+1/2) + 27(-1/2) = +5/2 Here the 52 extra neutrons fill the 52 blank positions, while the 3 extra neutrons which are more than those of the U-236 (in the absence of blank positions) make single bonds leading to beta minus decay. ' ' STRUCTURE OF U-219, U-221, U-223 AND U-241 After a careful analysis I found that the structures of the above unstable nuclides are based on another structure of U-184 (core) having S = +4. In this case the two deuterons of the down horizontal line (-DHL) change their spins from S = -2 to S = +2 giving S = +4. Particularly they go to the up horizontal line (+UHL), for making horizontal bonds with the two deuterons of the up horizontal line. For example the unstable U-241 with S = +7/2 of 55 extra neutrons has 27 extra neutrons of positive spins and 28 extra neutrons of negative spins. That is S = +4 + 27(+1/2) + 28(-1/2) = +7/2 Here the 52 extra neutrons fill the 52 blank positions, while the 3 extra neutrons, which are more than the U-236 (in the absence of blank positions) make single bonds leading to beta minus decay. Category:Fundamental physics concepts